The tests for specific gravity, viscosity, cloud point, pour point, flash point, heat of combustion, total acid value, catalyst, and fatty acid composition were performed at the Analytical Lab, Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of Idaho. The boiling point, water and sediment, carbon residue, ash, sulfur, cetane number, copper corrosion, Karl Fischer water, particulate matter, iodine number, and the elemental analysis were performed at Phoenix Chemical Labs, Chicago Illinois.
The high performance liquid chromatograph HPLC and titration analysis for total and free glycerol, percent of oil esterified, free fatty acids, and mono-, di-, and trigylicerides were performed by Diversified Labs Inc. Engine Performance Tests All engine performance tests were conducted in the engine performance lab at the University of Idaho. The equipment used and tests conducted are described below. The short term tests were performed with an in-line four cylinder John Deere T turbocharged, direct injected diesel engine.
It has a displacement of 3. It is attached to a General Electric kW hp cradled dynamometer. The engine was not modified in any way for use with renewable fuels. A Hewlett Packard data acquisition unit model A and a personal computer were used to collect data every thirty seconds during each of the tests. Torque, power, opacity, fuel consumption, and temperatures of various engine parameters were monitored throughout the testing and saved into a data file.
Fuel Flow Equipment -- The fuel delivery and return lines were adapted with quick couplers for fast and clean changing of the fuels. Individual 19 liter 5 gallon metal fuel tanks were modified with a fuel filter and flexible fuel lines which could be connected to the engine quick couplers. Fuel flow rate was determined by direct weighing. The fuel containers were placed on an electric Opacity Meter - A Telonic Berkley model portable opacity meter was connected to the data acquisition unit.
The opacity meter consists of a light source positioned on one side of the exhaust stream and a photo resistor mounted on the opposite side.
The meter provides an output voltage ranging from 0 to 1. OO volts. One hundred percent opacity 1. OO volt corresponds to no light transmission whereas 0 percent opacity 0. Injector Coking Test -- Carbon build-up within the combustion chamber and piston ring groove area is a potential problem with alternative fuels.
The injector coking test uses an easily removable part from the combustion chamber the injector and a short engine test to determine the carbon deposition on direct injection diesel nozzles. The engine was operated for ten minutes at each interval for data collection. The torque tests were performed with the engine operating from RPM to RPM in RPM increments with the same data collection procedure as previously described. Mapping Engine Performance - The engine mapping performance test was also triplicated.
The mapping tests were performed at ,, and RPM with loadings of ,75,50,25, and 0 percent of maximum power. The engine was operated for 5 minutes at each data collection interval. These engines have a bore and stroke of 80 mm and 75 mm respectively, a displacement of 0. The engines have a precombustion chamber combustion system and a condenser type cooling system with a cooling water capacity of 2. The engines drive alternators which are connected to a pair of electric load banks.
A timing circuit switches the load between the engines every twenty minutes. Each engine ran for hours, one with percent HySEE and the other with percent diesel 2 D2. The testing began June 7 and ran continuously for hours until June 13, with the exception of oil changes. The first hours of testing was with both engines operating at the same load. The second hours they operated at the same high RPM. This facility has instrumentation to measure all regulated emissions: total hydrocarbons HC , carbon monoxide CO , carbon dioxide CO?
A comprehensive description of this facility is in Peterson and Reece The total free fatty acids are determined and neutralized with the calculated addition of catalyst. Based on the amount of input oil by weight, 1.
The catalyst is dissolved into the alcohol by vigorous stirring in a small reactor. A successful reaction produces two liquid phases: ester and crude glycerol. Crude glycerol, the heavier liquid will collect at the bottom after several hours of settling.
Phase separation can be observed within 10 minutes and can be complete within two hours after stirring has stopped. Complete settling can take as long as 20 hours. After settling is complete, water is added at the rate of 5. After settling is complete the glycerol is drained and the ester layer remains. Washing the ester is a two step process which is carried out with extreme care.
A water wash solution at the rate of 28 percent by volume of oil and 1 gram of tannic acid per liter of water is added to the ester and gently agitated.
Air is carefully introduced into the aqueous layer while simultaneously stirring very gently. This process is continued until the ester layer becomes clear. After settling, the aqueous solution is drained and water alone is added at 28 percent by volume of oil for the final washing.
Engine warm-up and cool-down Three different engine test protocols were followed using facilities at the University of Idaho. Each test started with a warm-up and ended with a cool-down period. The warm-up period consisted of a two minute interval on D2 at low idle.
Then there was an eight minute interval with the fuel to be tested. During this eight minute period there is a gradual increase in load and RPM to the rated horsepower and load. The cool-down period consisted of 10 minutes on D2 at low idle. For both the warm-up and cool-down periods the return fuel line was placed into a separate container.
Engine Durability Screening Test The two TS70C Yanmar engines used for the engine durability screening test were rebuilt prior to the beginning of the hour test. New cylinder liners, pistons, rings and rod bearings were installed. The cylinder head was rebuilt and the head was thoroughly cleaned of all carbon deposits. The engine oil was changed and sampled every 50 hours of operation. The engine valves were adjusted at each oil change interval during the first hours of operation.
At the end of the hour test the engines were disassembled and inspected for evaluation of the effect of the fuel on engine components. Reduction of hemi cellulases production costs is strongly required to increase competitiveness of second generation bioethanol production. The final step is the fermentation of sugars obtained from saccharification, typically performed by the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The current process is optimized for 6-carbon sugars fermentation, since most of yeasts cannot ferment 5-carbon sugars.
Thus, research is aimed at exploring new engineered yeasts abilities to co-ferment 5- and 6-carbon sugars. Among the main routes to advance cellulosic ethanol, consolidate bio-processing, namely direct conversion of biomass into ethanol by a genetically modified microbes, holds tremendous potential to reduce ethanol production costs.
Finally, the use of all the components of lignocellulose to produce a large spectra of biobased products is another challenge for further improving competitiveness of second generation bioethanol production, developing a biorefinery. Its production and use adds little, if any, net release of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, dramatically reducing the potential for global climate change.
Through a sustained research program and an emerging economic competitiveness, the technology for bioethanol production is poised for immediate widespread commercial applications.
Written by engineers and scientists providing a technical focus, this handbook provides the up-to-date information needed by managers, engineers, and scientists to evaluate the technology, market, and economics of this fuel, while examining the development of production required to support its commercial use. In this process, biomass is subjected to gasification generating syngas, which is then converted to hydrous Ethanol. The process employs concepts similar to those proposed in patents issued to Range Fuels.
Mixed alcohols are generated as by-products. This report examines one-time costs associated with the construction of a United States-based plant and the continuing costs associated with the daily operation of such a plant. This process involves the following steps in the production of hydrous Ethanol: corn stover pretreatment with dilute acid and ammonia conditioning; enzymatic hydrolysis; and fermentation.
Electricity is also generated as by-product. To make useful chemicals or materials from cellulose requires as the first step the separation of cellulose from biomass. These engines have a bore and stroke of 80 mm and 75 mm respectively, a displacement of 0. The engines have a precombustion chamber combustion system and a condenser type cooling system with a cooling water capacity of 2. The engines drive alternators which are connected to a pair of electric load banks. A timing circuit switches the load between the engines every twenty minutes.
Each engine ran for hours, one with percent HySEE and the other with percent diesel 2 D2. The testing began June 7 and ran continuously for hours until June 13, with the exception of oil changes. The first hours of testing was with both engines operating at the same load. The second hours they operated at the same high RPM. This facility has instrumentation to measure all regulated emissions: total hydrocarbons HC , carbon monoxide CO , carbon dioxide CO?
A comprehensive description of this facility is in Peterson and Reece The total free fatty acids are determined and neutralized with the calculated addition of catalyst. Based on the amount of input oil by weight, 1. The catalyst is dissolved into the alcohol by vigorous stirring in a small reactor. A successful reaction produces two liquid phases: ester and crude glycerol. Crude glycerol, the heavier liquid will collect at the bottom after several hours of settling.
Phase separation can be observed within 10 minutes and can be complete within two hours after stirring has stopped. Complete settling can take as long as 20 hours. After settling is complete, water is added at the rate of 5. After settling is complete the glycerol is drained and the ester layer remains. Washing the ester is a two step process which is carried out with extreme care. A water wash solution at the rate of 28 percent by volume of oil and 1 gram of tannic acid per liter of water is added to the ester and gently agitated.
Air is carefully introduced into the aqueous layer while simultaneously stirring very gently. This process is continued until the ester layer becomes clear. After settling, the aqueous solution is drained and water alone is added at 28 percent by volume of oil for the final washing.
Engine warm-up and cool-down Three different engine test protocols were followed using facilities at the University of Idaho.
Each test started with a warm-up and ended with a cool-down period. The warm-up period consisted of a two minute interval on D2 at low idle. Then there was an eight minute interval with the fuel to be tested.
During this eight minute period there is a gradual increase in load and RPM to the rated horsepower and load. The cool-down period consisted of 10 minutes on D2 at low idle. For both the warm-up and cool-down periods the return fuel line was placed into a separate container. Engine Durability Screening Test The two TS70C Yanmar engines used for the engine durability screening test were rebuilt prior to the beginning of the hour test.
New cylinder liners, pistons, rings and rod bearings were installed. The cylinder head was rebuilt and the head was thoroughly cleaned of all carbon deposits. The engine oil was changed and sampled every 50 hours of operation. The engine valves were adjusted at each oil change interval during the first hours of operation. At the end of the hour test the engines were disassembled and inspected for evaluation of the effect of the fuel on engine components.
Coking of the pintle injector, precombustion chamber and piston ring grooves were evaluated by inspection. Emissions Testing Two problems had to be overcome in developing a test design. The first was that the number of potential test runs was unpredictable. The test facility was scheduled for one week during which time all testing had to be completed. The second hurdle was a tendency for emissions to vary with ambient conditions. A randomized block design with unequal sample numbers was developed.
In this design the main fuels were randomized and tested first and tests of fuel blends were included in later tests in each block. As it turned out, sufficient time was available to test each fuel and desired blends. Two runs of HySEE were included in the test design. The cycle used was the double arterial cycle of seconds duration. Five test runs were included on the same cycle using Phillips low sulfur diesel control fuel.
The emissions test procedure was as follows: 1. The test fuel delivery tube was connected to the input lines and the return line was connected to a waste tank.
The engine was started and run for 50 seconds. The engine was stopped and the return line was connected to the test fuel tank. The engine was restarted and idled for approximately 10 minutes until the MTA technicians were ready to run the test. The vehicle was operated under load until the operating temperatures stabilized. The test was started and the cycle completed. While the technicians were taking data, weighing particulate filters, etc. The waste oil was placed in drums and is solid at normal room temperatures.
The oil is heated in the drums by electric heaters and is then transferred into the biodiesel reactor for transesterification. The ethanol-KOH mixture is added to the heated waste grease. The amount of ethanol and KOH must be adjusted upward to account for vaporization of the ethanol as it is heated and the free fatty acid content of the waste oil.
Separation of the ester and glycerol is a constant problem. The final product produced in these tests was found to be Monoglycerides were 1. Alcohol content was only 0. Fuel Characterization A complete summary of the fuel characterization data is listed in Table 1 for the HySEE and the reference diesel fuel used for this study. Sulfur - HySEE had 1.
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